The Religion of the Northmen
Chapter XXIV
Page 1
The belief in sorcery (fjölkyngi, görningar) (1) was universal among the heathen Northmen, and it had its origin in the doctrine itself, which represents the magic arts as an invention of the Asa-Gods.
They made a distinction between two kinds of magic, viz., galldr and seiðr.
The name galldr may be derived from gala, to sing, and thus denoted a kind of sorcery that was performed by magic songs (gala or kveða galldra). Its origin and dissemination was attributed to the Æsir, and especially to Odin, who therefore was also called galldrs föður---the father of magic incantations. The men who cultivated this art were called galldra-smiðir or galldra-menn. The Runes occupied in this kind of sorcery an important place as magic characters, and it appears that the magician, while singing his incantations, mostly marked or scored certain runic characters corresponding to the effects which were desired from his sorcery. Often the magic songs or incantations themselves were called runes (rúnar). It was believed that by such incantations they could protect themselves against arms, undo chains, heal wounds and cure diseases, extinguish fire and settle storms, gain woman's love and wake up the dead in order to learn of them the future. (2) In the Older Edda there are several poems which allude to these things, though often in a manner rather obscure to us, and they even contain powerful incantations of this kind, as well as instructions concerning the magic use of Runes; for instance, in the Rúnatals-þáttr Oðins (Odin's Runic Lay) which forms the conclusion of the Hávamál (Sublime Discourse), Gróugalldr (Groa's Incantation), Sigrdrífumál (Sigurdrifa's Song), &c. In the latter especially there is reckoned up a whole lot of magic runes, such as runes of Victory (sigrrúnar) to be cut upon the sword for victory; Ale-runes (ölrúnar) to be carved upon the drinking horn, or marked upon the back of the hand and on the nails, in order to gain woman's love; Safety or Protection runes (bjargrúnar) to be marked inside of the hand of those who render assistance at the birth of children; Surf-runes (brimrúnar) to be carved upon the ship's prow and rudder as a protection against the raging of the sea; Limb-runes (limrúnar) to be made on bark or wood to insure a speedy and favorable cure; Speech-runes (málrúnar), which were to confer eloquence at the assemblies; Sense-runes (hugrúnar) which were to give understanding. The poem clearly shows that these runes denoted incantations by means of magic songs and the inscribing of magic characters. A story from Egil's Saga may show what great faith the people had in the power of these formulas and magic signs. Queen Grunhilda wished to do harm to Egil at a banquet, and for this purpose caused poisoned ale to be offered to him. But Egil, who was suspicious of the drink, scored runes upon the horn, then pricked the inside of his hand with his knife and marked the runes with blood, whereupon the horn bursted and the drink fell on the floor. (3) It was, however, necessary to be very careful in the application of these magic spells, for in the hands of a bungler who knew not how to apply them properly, it was thought they might become very dangerous. This appears in another place in the same Saga. When Egil was on a journey in Norway, it is there related, he met with a countryman's daughter who was lying very sick. Her parents said they had applied to a country lad of the neighborhood for help, and he had carved runes in order to cure her, but she had only become worse with them. Egil examined the bed in which she lay, and found under the head a piece of whalebone with runes engraved upon it. He read them and found that they were incorrect. He scraped them off, burned the scrapings in the fire and engraved new runes, which he laid under her pillow. Immediately the girl awoke as if from a sleep, and recovered her health. (4) A knowledge of incantations and runes was not, as a general thing in heathen times, held to be in any way ignoble, when not applied to ignoble objects.
The term seiðr, sometimes written seyðr, appears to be cognate with sjóða, to seethe, to boil, and in this case would signify witchcraft, or sorcery which was performed by the boiling of certain objects to which superstition had imputed magic powers. What these things were, is now no longer known; this was very naturally a secret of the initiated. In the performance of witchcraft (at síða, efla seið) there were a great many circumstances to be attended to. It was mostly done at night, and those who practiced it sat during the magic performances upon a raised platform called the witches' seat (seiðhjallr). The performance was also connected with a magic song or incantation, and the melody of this song was beautiful to hear. In the Laxdæla Saga a magic performance of this kind is described. The Icelandic chieftain Hrút Herjúlfsson was on unfriendly terms with his kinsman Thorleik Höskuldsson. The latter wished to do some injury to Hrút, and for that purpose employed his hireling Kotkel and Grima his wife, both of whom were well skilled in magic. "Kotkel and Grima went in the night to Hrút's house and established a great seiðr. When the enchanting song (seiðlætin) began, the people in the house could not imagine what it meant; but the song was beautiful to hear. Hrút alone knew the song; he forbade every one to look out of the house during the night, and bade all to keep awake as well as they could, then no one could be harmed by it. Nevertheless they all slept; Hrút remained awake the longest, but he, too, fell asleep at last. Hrút's son Kári, who was then twelve years old, was the most promising of his children and well beloved by the father. The sorcery was directed upon him; he, therefore, could not sleep soundly, but became more and more restless. Finally he sprang up and looked out; he drew near the place of the enchantment and fell down dead." Hrút afterward avenged his son's death by causing Kotkel and Grima to be stoned. (5)
By means of these enchantments called seið, it was believed that the sorcerer could call up storms and all manner of injuries, transform himself into the likeness of animals, and enable himself to foretell coming events. This art appears to have been mostly employed for doing injury, and was considered a far more ignoble act than the incantations (galldr). Its origin was ascribed to the Goddess Freyja, and it appears to have been mostly practiced by women, who were called witches (seiðkona, plur. seiðkonur). The great abhorrence which many, even in heathen times, had for this kind of sorcery, is seen in King Harald Hárfagri's proceedings against his own son Ragnvald Rettilbein, whom he put to death because he meddled with this kind of witchcraft. (6)
There are many kinds of sorcery mentioned in the ancient Sagas without being expressly classed under either of the above-named principal heads, but which, doubtless, were in some way connected with them more or less remotely. The most important of them shall here be cited.
Jugglery (sjónhverfingar, from sjón, sight, and hverfa, to turn) was performed by blinding the eyes of the people with magic arts, so that certain objects appeared to them totally different from what they really were. This kind of sorcery is often spoken of in the ancient Sagas as being employed by magicians when the wished to conceal any person from hostile pursuit, or to frighten his enemies. In such cases the pursuers saw, as it is stated, an animal, a coffin, or some other animate or inanimate object, in the very place where the person was whom they were looking for, while on the other hand they fancied they saw troops of armed men coming to aid the one they pursued, where there was nothing in reality but a herd of cows or sheep. The magician was also believed to have power to blind others in the same manner with regard to himself. But if the pursuers either broke the inanimate thing in pieces or killed the animal, under whose form they saw the real object, then their vision cleared up and they saw the person in his true form lying dead. Certain people, however, were believed to possess such strong natural powers that their eyes remained unblinded by this kind of sorcery. (7)
Intimately connected with the above, was the power, often mentioned in the Sagas, of becoming invisible, through which the magician by his arts could make himself or any one else that he chose become totally invisible. He was then said to "make a hiding-helmet" (gera huliðs-hjálm) for himself or others. This kind of invisibility is sometimes described as being produced by a sort of dust, of the appearance of ashes, which the magician scattered over and about those whom he wished to conceal.
The belief in actual transformations, especially into the forms of animals, was also universal. Such transfromations could either be brought upon others to their injury---as, for instance, it is related of the magic-skilled Queen Hvíta, that in hatred to her step-son who had rejected her love, she changed him into a bear by the stroke of a wolf-skin glove (8)---or they could be assumed by the magician himself, in order that in his enchanted form he might pass more easily and quickly to distant places. This latter sort of transformation occurs most frequently in the Sagas, and the journey by this mode was designated hamför, gandreið, or, at renna göndum. (9) On such occasions the human body was believed to lie as if dead or in an enchanted sleep, while the soul, inclosed in the form of a whale, a seal, a falcon, or any other animal that might be found best adapted to the object of its magic journey, roamed abroad in other places. It was then necessary to be careful not to speak the sorcerer's name nor wake up the sleeping body, for by doing so the whole charm was destroyed and the spirit was compelled to turn back to its own proper habitation again. Should there be any injury done to the assumed form---or, as it was called, hamr---it affected the real body. Women who undertook these enchanted flights in transformation, were called hamhleypur (sing. hamhleypa, a witch, a lamia; from hamr, and hleypa, to run). Certain women, it was believed, could transform themselves into Nightmares (mara, or kveldriða), and in this disguise smother people in their sleep, or do them some other injury in the night. (10) Finally, it was also admitted as a possiblity that people could mutually exchange their outward appearance (skipta litum). In all such transformations, however, it appears that they believed the eyes---that reflection of the human soul---to remain unchanged.
Endnotes
1. Fjölkyngi and fjölkunnigr---from fjöld, a multitude, fjöl, much, many (Germ. viel), and kunna, to be able, to know---signify multifarious knowledge, and much-knowing, and hence, magic, skilled in magic. Görningar (sing. görningr) from göra, to do, to make, properly denotes actions, performances; whence, magic arts; witchcraft. [Back]
2. These incantations were called valgalldr, probably because they were chiefly used in calling up those fallen in battle (valr). [Back]
3. Eg. S. 44. [Back]
4. Eg. S. 75. [Back]
5. Laxd. S. 37. [Back]
6. Snor.: Har. Hárf. S. 36. [Back]
7. Hörðs S., Eyrb. S. et al. [Back]
8. Hrólfs Kraka S. 20. [Back]
9. Hamför---from hamr, outward form---denotes a journey in an assumed form. Gandr, a wolf, a dragon, and especially, a demon-animal; gandreið, the ride upon such animals, and renna göndum, to travel upon them. [Back]
10. The punishment for such women is established in the Anc. Laws of Norway, I., p. 403. [Back]
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