The Religion of the Northmen
The best known among them are Friđţjofs-saga and Hervarar-saga. The former is probably from the beginning of the fourteenth century, and is full of most beautiful poetry. The subject is thoroughly mythic, but the romantic predominates in the treatment. It is interesting for its representation of the worship of Baldur and his temple. The latter contains some very fine poems inwoven among much fabulous matter. The most celebrated among them Hervarar-kviđa---Hervör's conversation with her father Angantyr, whom she calls out of the grave in order to obtain from him the magic sword Tyrfíng. The poem is much older than the prose narration; it is in true heathen spirit, and possesses great power.
In this class may also be reckoned the Saga of Ketil Hćng, of Grim the Bearded (Lođinkinna), Örvar Odd's Saga, Saga of An the Archer (Bogsveigis, Bow-bender), of Thorstein Víkingsson and a number more, which we need not enumerate. There are also many legends translated or drawn from the medićval Romantic literature of other nations. All of the best productions of the Romantic spirit in Southern lands was appropriated with restless activity by the Icelanders, especially the numberless sacred legends of the Middle Ages. All that was sung or written in Germany, France, England, Spain, and Belgium, of Charlemagne, of Arthur and the Round Table, of the Holy Grail, &c., they collected and translated or related anew. So are there Icelandic versions of Flores and Blanchiflora, of Tristan, of Parcival, and of Lohengrin, &c., of the legends of Melusina, Magelona, and others, in short, of almost all the Epic productions of the Provencals and the Minnesängers. The most of these appeared in the early part of the thirteenth century, in the Golden Age of Icelandic prose.
The Historical class constitutes by far the most extensive and valuable department of the Icelandic Saga-literature. It embraces more than a hundred Sagas, which throw much light upon the institutions and government, the manners and customs of the North. In them we find the family and the commonwealth minutely and clearly described in their various relations, while in general history they contain rich treasures for the historian and archćologist, which are even yet comparatively untouched, and out of the North are almost unknown.
They likewise present a rich field of mythological research, not so much in mythic memorials---for of these they contain few, except in the inwoven Skaldic lays---as in the information they give concerning the worship and the entire manifestation of Northern Heathendom. They lay down a mass of minute and credible statements in regard to the temples, festivals, offerings, religious rites, &c., which are indispensable in writing a history of the Idol-worship of Scandinavia.
The love of history was enkindled among the Icelanders by their intense national feelings, and the interest in public affairs which was required by their free institutions, as well as by their attachment to the Old and the Inherited, and their constant longing for their Mother Country. As soon as the written language was developed they began to write history, and it is worthy of remark that the Historical Sagas were almost universally written before the Mythic and Romantic ones. Their age is chiefly the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth centuries. The sources of history were the lays of the Skalds, and the genealogical trees which every chieftain was careful to preserve.
The historiography of Iceland is generally confined to the history of the island itself, and of the Northern Kingdoms, hence the Sagas of this class are divided into Icelanders' Histories (Íslendínga Sögur) and the Histories of their Ancestors (Fornmanna Sögur). To the former belong all that relate to Iceland, usually including those of Orkneys, Faroes, and Greenland. The General Histories are few in number. They are: 1. Íslendínga-bók, the Icelanders' Book, written by Ari Fróđi, and usually entitled "Schedć," which is regarded as the oldest book of the whole Icelandic literature. It is a dry and meagre sketch of the most important events of Iceland from the first settlement down to about the year 1120.
2. Landnáma-bók---Land-taking Book, a detailed history of the early settlement and appropriation of Iceland until toward the end of the tenth century. It is also rather dry, from the long lists of names and genealogies, but the details are more interesting than the "Schedć." It presents a good picture of the religious ceremonies, and of their connection with judicial and political affairs. It was written and continued by various authors, and received its present form about the end of the thirteenth, or beginning of the fourteenth century.
3. Kristni-saga, a History of the Introduction of Christianity into Iceland. It opens with the year 981, closes with 1121, and appears to have been written in the beginning of the fourteenth century. It contains much important information respecting the heathen life and occupations of the Icelanders. To these may be added the Orkneyínga-saga, a history of the Orkneian Jarls from the end of the ninth to the middle of the thirteenth century, and the Fćreyínga-saga, strictly the biography of the two cheiftains, Thrand and Sigmund Brestason; but as they gain authority over the Faroes, it becomes also a history of the islands themselves. It embraces the end of the tenth and the beginning of the eleventh centuries, and appears to have been written in the twelfth. The events which it relates still live in the mouths of the Faroe people.
The Local and Family Histories and Biographies are far more numerous, as well as more entertaining and instructive. They give an insight into the private life of the people, and although they usually contain events of trifling importance, such as family quarrels, deeds of vengeance, legal trials, journeys to Iceland, Norway, England, &c., yet in vivacity of manner, freshness of delineation, and simplicity of style they are very attractive. They are, in effect, Romances, but Romances which have a historical foundation, and, making allowance for poetical decorations, are strictly historical in their minutest details. It is in fact their minute individualization of events, circumstances, and characters, together with the manner of narration, which gives them the character of Romances. The most importnat among those written in the twelfth century are: 1. Viga-Styrs-saga, the history of the chieftain Asgrip, who on account of his quarrelsome disposition and deeds of blood was called Viga-Styr, and was finally slain by Gest, the son of one of his victims. His son Thorhall then pursues Gest for a long course of years, even to Byzantium, but finally they are reconciled. In the meantime, however, one Snorri Gođi kills a kinsman of Viga-Stýr; which act, according to the laws of retaliation, calls for vengeance from the friends of the deceased. 2. In Heiđarviga-saga, the "Story of the Battle on the Heath," the friends of the murdered man avenge themselves by slaying Hall Guđmundsson, a friend of Snorri's, and the brothers of the latter again retaliate, after which the parites engage in the "Battle on the Heath," from which the Saga is named. Peace is finally established by Snorri's ingenuity. The time of action is in the latter part of the tenth century and the beginning of the eleventh.
3. Niáls-saga closes with the year 1017. In richness and variety it is far superior to any of this class. A mass of occurrences are here brought together and arranged into a well-ordered whole. The various personages are well delineated, while their respective characters are maintained throughout, and always presented with dramatic effect. There are scenes of the most touching pathos, such as the burning of Niál and his sons, and the narration is often relieved by a vein of humor. The numerous assemblies of the people and legal trials which are described, give us a good idea of the judicial and political institutions of Iceland. Making allowance for the tedium of some of these details, this Saga will not lose by comparison with the higher literature of any age. It contains many poems, among them the celebrated song of the Valkyrjur.
4. Gunlaugs Ormstungu-saga, is the life of the Skald Gunlaug, the Serpent-Tongued, who traveled about much in Norway, England, and Sweden, was loved and caressed for his talents, and hated for his cutting sarcasm. He was killed in a duel in the year 1013.
5. Viga-Glums-saga. History of the chieftan Glum, who became notorious by his cunning impudence in some unimportant quarrels, and who died in 1003 as a Christian. Although there are few important or interesting occurrences in this Saga, it contains valuable contributions to the history of the worship and religious tenets of the Icelanders.
6. Egils-saga is, perhaps, the most attractive of the Icelandic Biographies. Egil, a renowned poet and chieftain, lived in the tenth century. His life was most active, wild and adventurous. Under every variety of circumstances he roved about in the North-lands, and plundered on the coasts of Friesland, Saxony and Prussia; his violent passion, his quarrelsome and vindictive disposition precipitated him into the most desperate situations, but cunning, physical strength, and his poetic gift, always rescued him. Wearied at length with his barren, unstable life, and rich in experience, in renown, and in treasures, he returned to his distant home, where he lived to an advanced age, celebrated as a Skald and feared as a chieftain, and died adventurously at last.
7. Kormaks-saga. Kormak was scarcely less renowned as a poet then Egil, of whom he was a cotemporary; but his mildness and affability were in pleasing contrast with the daring and blood-stained Egil. His whole life appears under the influence of one feeling---his love to Steingerđa. But this love was unfortunate through his own fault; and Steingerđa became affianced to another. Kormak travels in the vain hope of repose, meets with various adventures in a sea-roving life, and continues to write verses in praise of Steingerđa to the day of his death.
8. Vatnsdćla-saga begins in the ninth century, before the colonization of Ireland, and relates the fortunes of a Norwegian family which settled in Vatnsdal, in Northern Iceland. It contains many mythological allusions, and the God Freyr plays a prominent role in it.
The Fostbrćđra-saga relates the story of two foster-brothers of the eleventh century, and contains verses written by one of them; the Ljósvetnínga-saga relates the occurrences of the latter part of the tenth and the first half of the eleventh century. Its chief personages, Thorgeir Gođi, Guđmund the Mighty, and their sons, are elsewhere known and celebrated. It contains important information concerning the institutions of Iceland; and the Saga of Gisli Sursson has some interesting features of heathen rites and ceremonies. Passing by many others attributed to this century, some of which contain valuable contributions to the history of heathendom in Iceland, we will notice a few of the most prominent Sagas of the thirteenth century.
1. Eyrbyggja-saga, the history of Hrolf, a priest of Thor, and his race. He fled from Harald Hárfagri, and settled on a large bay in western Iceland, which he called "Breiđafjörđ," the Broad Firth. Here he built a large temple to Thor, which he and his descendants presided over. Of these his great-grandson Snorri Gođi appears as the prominent personage of the Saga. This Saga gives a clear view of the Old-Scandinavian worship of Thor, as it was transplanted to Iceland.
2. Laxdćla-saga, one of the most comprehensive, and in fullness of material, in the plan and in completeness of narration, perhaps the best. It covers the period of Olaf Tryggvason's reign, about the year 1000, and of the introduction of Christianity into Norway and Iceland. The history of that time, especially of the transition of the heathen life of the Northmen into the Christian, is finely represented in this Saga.
3. Sturlúnga-saga, or Íslendínga-saga hin mikla---"the Great Saga of the Icelanders," is the most detailed of all. It treats of the much-renowned race of the Sturlúngar, and relates their fortunes and their deeds from the beginning of the twelfth century until the year 1284. It therefore embraces a period much later than the times of heathendom, and is very important in the history of Iceland.
4. Arons-saga Hjörleifssonar is connected with the above Saga, Aron, the son of Hjörleif, being one of the few chieftains who supported Bishop Guđmund against the Sturlungs. He died in 1250.
5. Grettis-saga is very rich in events, but full of romantic and fabulous traits. The hero is Grettir the Strong, an oft-mentioned Skald of the eleventh century, who somewhat resembles Egil in whild recklessness, but is less gifted as a poet.
Many more Sagas of the thirteenth century may be passed by here, as they, with few exceptions, are of secondary importance; and there is quite a large number from the fourteenth, and even some from the fifteenth century; but the later we come, the less interest they have for us, and the less reliable they are. Many of them are wholly suppositious, being not mere fictions, but forgeries. They seem to move upon historical ground, while they are in reality nothing but silly inventions and fables, which it would be a misnomer to call historical.
The Historical Sagas relating to the other Scandinavian countries, are generally more finished works than the preceding, being complete histories of a whole age or period. The Icelanders felt a strong attachment to their Mother Country, which they often visited, and they naturally were familiar with its traditions and passing events. They therefore labored as diligently upon its history as at their own, and as they had to collect and compare traditions and occurances which were not living in the mouths of the people around them, they found it necessary to generalize and arrange the material---a work requiring superior learning and talents. Hence they wrote more general Histories and fewer local Sagas bearing upon those countries.
On the history of Denmark there are two large Sagas, which are masterpieces of Icelandic historiography, viz.:
1. Jómsvíkinga-saga, the history of the renowned Sea-rovers, who were established at Jómsburg, near the mouth of the Oder, and who were for a long time the terror of all the neighboring coasts. It begins with an account of the race of Palnatoki, the founder of Jómsburg, and relates how Sven was brought up by him, and incited to continual piratical excursions against the lands of his father, Harald Blátand, how King Harald fell by Palnatoki, and the latter, after Sven's ascension to the throne, was pursued by him, and built a large fortress on the Vendian coast, in which he formally established a community of Sea-rovers, and strengthened it by appropriate laws. In the second part it treats of the causes which brought about the celebrated expedition of the Jómsburgers against Norway, which it describes, and paints circumstantially the battle in which the power of the Sea-rovers was broken down by Hákon Jarl. This Saga was written in the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth century, from authentic sources, as many Icelanders were in Hákon Jarl's army at the aforesaid battle. It is distinguished for the perspicuity with which circumstances and persons are represented, and is important, not only to Danish history, but also to Mythology, since the chief personages are the last representatives of Heathendom in the North, and consequently heathen sentiments and manners are everywhere presented.
2. Knytlínga-saga, a history of the Danish Kings from Harald Blátand to Knut VI., of whom the successors of Knut the Great were named "Knytlíngar" (Knutides, descendants of Canute). It was written, partly from older sources, by Olaf Thordarsson (died 1259), who composed a fragment of the Prose Edda. Although the events mostly take place in Christian times, yet it is not wanting in poetic beauties, and even the greater part of the first chapter is taken from the lays of Eirik Jarl and Sven Estriđson, the Court Skalds of Knut the Great.
Of the Sagas relating to Norway we have:
1. Saga Olafs Tryggvasonar, Olaf Tryggvason's Saga, in two different works, both independent of Snorri's, and undertaken before it. One is by Monk Oddur (d. 1200), the other by Monk Gunlaug, a younger contemporary of the former. Both were written in Latin, and of both we have only Icelandic translations. Olaf Tryggvason was the founder of Christianity in Norway, and in his history there are various references to Heathendom, which he was actively engaged in driving out by force. Both these works afford a rich mine for the mythologist, inasmuch as they unfold the decay of heathen life in the North, and its transition to Christianity. Gunlaug's work is also interesting from the great number of inlaid Skaldic Songs.
2. Saga Olafs hin Helga, the Saga of Olaf the Saint. This King continued the work of conversion begun by his predecessor, and hence this Saga has for us a similar interest to the preceding one, although in a less degree. It contains songs of Sighvat, Ottar the Swarthy, and others.
3. Heimskringla, the World-Circle, (3) the Chronicles of the Norwegian Kings, by Snorri Sturlason. Next to the Edda, this is the most celebrated work in the whole Icelandic literature. It begins as far back in the mythic times as memory reaches, while the other Icelandic histories usually begin with Harald Hárfagri, and it comes down to Magnus Erlingsson, A.D. 1176. It is not a primitive history, drawn immediately from the traditions and songs of the people, as was the case with many of the Sagas, but was constructed by Snorri from materials already blocked out in previously-existing Sagas. These Sagas contained a tolerably full history of Norway, in isolated fragments, which Snorri collected, modified, and combined with remarkable care and judgment, into one continuous historical work. This origin of the Heimskringla is shown in the circumstance that it is divided into different Sagas, as well as by certain variations and contradictions that occur in the different parts. (4)
Snorri's account has only an incidental interest for the mythologist where it treats of the later, purely Christian ages of Norway; it is more important where the downfall of the heathen life is represented, and highly interesting in the delineation of the mythic age---in the Ynglínga Saga.
This gives an account of the first mythic race of Kings in Sweden and Norway, the Ynglíngar, and is a kind of Introduction. Snorri wrote it from Thjodolf's Ýnglínga-tal, and throughout the latter part of it he inlaid every important transaction with a strophe of that ancient poem. This portion of the work is of no historical value, and, in a mythological point of view, it becomes absurd in the earlier chapters, where the attempt is made to establish the Ynglínga history upon the history of the Gods, and to connect the two by means of foreign, Grćco-Roman ideas and traditions. The other portions of the Heimskringla are adorned with fine poems, which impart a certain mythologic interest to the whole work.
It was continued by various authors, down to the time of Magnus the Law-mender; namely, in Sverris-saga, begun by the Abbot Carl Jonsson, and finished by Styrmir the Learned; and further, through four other Sagas, down to Magnus Lagabćtis-Saga, written by Sturla Thordarsson, of which only a fragment remains. With Snorri's history, the masterpiece of Icelandic Historiography, and the pieces annexed to it, we conclude this brief sketch of the Saga literature of Iceland.
ENDNOTES:
3. This work has been thus named by the learned from the two principal words at the beginning: "Svá er sagt at kringla heimsins." "It is said that the circle of the world, &c." In the MS. it is called "Ćfi Noregs Konúnga," "Life of the Kings of Norway," or "Noregs Konúnga Sögur," "Sagas of the Kings of Norway." [Back]
4. The Introduction begins: "á bók ţessi let ek rita forna frásagnir." "In this book I have caused the ancient narratives to be written, &c.," as though he had only attended to the editing of it. [Back]
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