Other similar rites were performed in Slavic countries and in Russia. In Carinthia the rolling of 'St. John's' fiery wheel is described. They also leaped over bonfires as well did they lead their cattle by the fires to protect them against witchcraft. It is interesting to note that protecting the cattle from disease (the original purpose of this rite) is turned into protecting them from witchcraft, an obvious Christianizing of the rite. In Russia young men and women, garlanded with flowers and girt with 'holy herbs' all got together on the 24th of June and lighted a fire which they lept over and led their flocks over while singing songs. This was thought to protect the cattle from wood-sprites. Sometimes a white cock was burned in the fire as well. (489)

The charcoal and partially burned limbs from the fire were considered as having magical protective properties. Some of the charred branches were taken home and it was believed to have been good luck and protective. Some would jump three times round the fire with a branch of walnut in the their hands. Father's of families would whisk a branch through the fire which they would than put up over their cow-house door. The old men would put some of the coal from the fire in their wooden shoes which was thought to safeguard them from various woes. Other customs had large burs of mugwort being hung over the gate or gap through which cattle would always pass. (490)

That these customs described are Northern in nature is shown by the issuing of the following order by the Nürnberg town-council. "Whereas experience heretofore hath shown, that after the old Northern use, on John's day in every year, in the country, as well in towns as villages, money and wood hath been gathered by young folk, and thereupon the so-called sonnenwendt or zimmet fire kindled, and thereat winebibbing, dancing about the said fire, leaping over the same, with burning of sundry herbs and flowers, and setting of brands from the said fire in the fields, and in many other ways all manner of superstitious work carried on---Therefore the Hon. Council of Nürnberg town neither can nor ought to forbear to do away with all such unbecoming superstition, paganism, and peril of fire on this coming day of St. John (Neuer lit. anz. 1807, p. 318)." Sun's Wending fires were forbidden in Austria in 1850. (491)

There were instances of feasts that were held regularly but at longer intervals than a year. We have accounts of great feasts held every nine years, one in Uppsala and one in Denmark. Adam of Bremen tells of the great sacrifice that was held at Uppsala every nine years. Snorri called this the 'chief blót,' and was held to obtain peace and victory for the Swedish king. Kings and commoners alike sent gifts to Uppsala. Those who subscribed to the Christian religion had to pay for not coming to the blót. They would sacrifice nine of every living creature each day, including men and they would hang the bodies in the tree that was considered to be divine. 72 men were said to be hanging on the tree according to one account. The festival lasted nine days and sacrifices were made on each day. It was held at the beginning of Summer at the same time the Sigrblót was held. The second account comes from Thietmar of Merseburg. He wrote of a great feast that was held every ninth year in which 90 men along with horses, dogs and cocks were offered to 'the powers of the Underwold.' Many scholars consider the account to be unreliable and likely a copy of Adam of Bremen's account. (492)

The Two Great Seasons

The major unit of time keeping for Northmen was the two great seasons. Unlike our four seasons, they had two which consisted of Winter and Summer Sometimes they were called Spring and Autumn but it was still only two seasons that were meant. Each one was 26 weeks long. This practice turned into four seasons the farther South one went but for the most part, the Northern Europeans seemed to have kept a two season calendar. (493) The beginning of each season was marked with a great feast. These would have been Winter Nights on Oct. 14th and Sigrblót or Summer-finding on April 14th. The passage of time was counted in Winters and nights. (494) So instead of saying I will see you three days they would have said, I will see you in three nights time. Instead of saying I moved here 3 years ago they would have said I moved here three winters ago. (495) The year was seen as a ring and the completion of one ring (year) and beginning of a new ring was seen as a time of great festivities as is evidenced from the importance that was placed on Jól. The two halves of the year were called misseri, which was equal to six months. The plural misserum indicated twelve months. (496) Both the Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse have terms that support this two-fold division of the year. Just as the year fell in two halves so did the night (24 hours) fall in two halves of 12 hours each. (497)

Although the beginning of Summer is given as April 14th this time might actually start earlier or later officially as some areas considered the beginning of summer when the first flower bloomed or when certain birds returned from their Winter roosts. This is the origin of the title 'Summer-finding.' The finding of this first flower blooming or the return of the bird was then, in affect, 'finding' summer. In some places whoever saw the first bird to return ran to the spot and stuck a pole there and put flowers on the pole and danced around it and sang songs. One of the birds that was especially considered to be the harbringer of Spring was the cuckoo. (498) In fact, the 1st Summer month was named gaukmánuðr which translated means "cuckoo month." (499) This month ran from April 14th through May 13th. Farther South the Germans considered the arrival of spring to be March with the arrival of the stork and the swallow along with the first blooms of the violet. (500) The two half years of the Icelanders was made up of 364 days. This would, of course, cause the seasons to shift with time. This caused the Icelanders much consternation when they noticed that, by their method of time-keeping, that the Summer was moving backwards into Spring. Ari the Learned tells us how they addressed this. One night Thorstein Surt had a dream. He dreamed that he was at the Althing (Great Law Assembly) which was held every Mid-Summer at Thingvellir. In his dream he was the only one awake there but when everyone else was awake, he fell asleep. Ari interpreted this as signifying that when Thorstein was speaking at the Althing everyone else would be quite. The meaning however could also symbolize that by reckoning the seasons wrongly, they were being active when they should be inactive and vice versa. Thorstein came up with a solution which was enthusiastically accepted. He suggested that an extra week be added to the year every seventh year. It is interesting to note that the determination of time and dates was the responsibility of the Althing. The Lawspeaker proclaimed the misseristal for the coming year at the close of the assembly, thus making the keeping of time under the aegis of the gods. (501)

The Turning of the Moon

Even though Northern Europeans had a solar calendar they also had a lunar calendar for common use because it was much easier to reckon time by the moon than by the sun. For this reason they counted by nights instead of by days. A section of time was counted by number of nights, then seennights (7 days), fortnights (14 days), turns (of the month - 29-30 days) and Winters (years). (502) Tacitus confirms that they did count by nights instead of days as well and says that barring accidents or emergency they assembled on the new and full moons because they believed that it was most fortunate to begin transactions during this time. (503) He does not tell us which actions were best for which turn of the moon but we can assume that some actions were better performed on the full moon while others might be better performed on the new moon. These customs were so entrenched in the common people that the church could not rid the people of these customs and were forced to allow them. To this day almanacs give good planting times according to the phases of the moon and if we look at folk-lore we can easily see what actions were best performed depending on what phase the moon was in. Grimm's 19th century accounts of folk-lore give us ample information on this subject. We know from Caesar that it was thought best to fight a battle on the new moon. The new moon (or any day of its increase up until the full moon) was an auspicious time for beginnings. Marriages should be done on the New moon as well as the beginning of building a house or moving into one. The belief was that if done on the new moon or its increase that money, married bliss and house stores would grow or increase with the increase of the moon. Hair and nails were cut at new moon to give them a good chance of growing and cattle were weaned in the waxing light of the moon. It was believed that if they were weaned in the waning light (that is, from the full moon until the next new moon) that they would get lean. Babies were to be weaned by the course of the moon as well. Boys were to be weaned at the full moon and girls to be weaned at the waning moon. Grimm theorizes this was so the boy would grow to be stout and strong and the girl would be slim and elegant. Also if one was to gather healing herbs they should be done on the new moon or its increase because they were considered to be fresh and 'unalloyed' at that time. (504)

Just as there were things believed best done on the new moon and its increase there were things believed best done on the full moon and its decrease. On the full moon and its decrease things involving separating or the ending of things were to be performed. During this time marriages were to be annulled and houses knocked down. In a Calendar printed in 1511 it stated that it was good to chop wood on the moon's waning. There was also a tradition that no wood should be felled during the crescent moon. Grass was not to be mown at new moon but at full. It was also tradition to shoot game on the full and waning moon and treasures must be lifted at full moon. A bed should not be stuffed during the new moon or its increase because it was thought that the feathers would not lie still. It was thought that if you opened a trench by the waxing moon that it would soon close over again and if opened by the waning it would get wider and deeper. It was considered bad to open a vein during the waning moon because it was thought that the blood would gather in the legs. Sevian women believed it not good to wash clothing at the new moon because they believed it would cause the shirt to tear soon. Grimm speculates that another reason for washing by the waning moon could have been because the stains would disappear with the dwindling light. (505)