Grimm points out that a very large number of the names of rivers and towns that produce salt have the roots hal and sal in their names. These roots originally signified 'the same wholesome holy material.' (365)

According to Grimm the distributing of salt was a holy office and he speculates of the possibility of festivals connected with salt-boiling. He further theorizes that this office was held by women and that it could be the roots of the traditions surrounding witches in the middle ages. I would like to quote his theory as it does have a ring of truth to it.

"Suppose now that the preparation of salt was managed by women, by priestesses, that the salt-kettle (cauldron), saltpan, was under their care and supervision; there would be a connection established between salt-boiling and the later vulgar opinion about witchcraft: the witches gather, say on certain high days, in the holy wood, on the mountain, where the salt springs bubble, carrying with them cooking-vessels, ladles and forks; and at night their saltpan is a-glow." (366)

It is easy to see how that, if the wise-women were charged with boiling the salt in cauldrons at holy rites, the Christians would have taken this picture and turned it into devil worshiping witches cackling with glee over bubbling cauldrons. The reasons for this are easy to see. Before the coming of Christianity the wise-woman or spaekona was treated with great respect and in some cases even revered in near goddess-like status. They were consulted before going into battle and in all important matters. This, of course, was a threat to the authority of the church and they wasted no time demonizing the wise-woman. She went from being the wise-woman and treated with respect to being a devil worshiping witch whose only purpose was to bring ill to man. After transforming the wise-woman into the evil witch the Church wasted no time following the biblical injunction to "not suffer a witch to live." Christians made sure that the sanctifying of salt was their domain alone. I'll, hear, quote Grimm again.

"As Christians equally recognized salt as a good and needful thing, it is conceivable how they might now, inverting the matter, deny the use of wholesome salt at witches' meetings, and come to look upon it as a safeguard against every kind of sorcery (Superst. I, no. 182). For it is precisely salt that is lacking in the witches' kitchen and at devil's feasts, the Church having now taken upon herself the hallowing and dedication of salt. Infants un-baptized, and so exposed, had salt placed beside them for safety, RA. 457. The emigrants from Salzburg dipped a wetted finger in salt, and swore. Wizards and witches were charged with the misuse of salt in baptizing beasts. I think it worth mentioning here, that the magic-endowed giantesses in the Edda knew how to grind, not only gold, but salt, Sn. 146-7: the one brought peace and prosperity, the other a tempest and foul weather." (367)

As we'll see later, when talking about Spring rites, the fertility rites of May, may also have been turned into witches jaunts for the same reasons.

The Need Fire

Holy Flame is a very important part of Northern practice. It can be found in some form in most all rites. Whether it be the Summer Finding and midsummer fires or the fires of the blót-feast which were used to hallow the mead or ale. Fires were jumped through during midsummer rites and cattle might be herded between fires to protect them from disease. (368) Fire, like water, was a living being to Northmen (369) with the power to carry things between the nine worlds. Grimm describes the need-fire as tüfel häla which means 'despoiling the devil of his strength.' He believes that this is possibly "one of those innumerable allusions to Loki, the devil and fire-god. (370) See the article on Loki for more information concerning this. .

Fire was thought to take people and materials to the other-worlds. We'll examine the more esoteric implications of this in the second part of this article dealing with how we might incorporate these practices into modern practice. But for now we'll limit ourselves to specific evidence in the lore. Davidson states that the heating and cooking (fire) of meat on the hearth was an image of the link between man and the other-world. (371) In Ynglinga saga it was Othinn's law that dead men should be burned along with their belongings. If they did this they would come to Valhalla. (372) It seems from this description that it was the burning that took the dead men and their belongings to Vallhöll. Even more convincing evidence of this comes from the account of Ibn Fadlin, in which he describes the funeral of a Rus Chieftain. In it, one of the Northmen attending the funeral where the chief along with his belongings were burned said, "You Arabs are fools." When the Rus was asked why he said that he replied, '"You take the people who are most dear to you and whom you honor most and put them into the ground where insects and worms devour them. We burn him in a moment, so that he enters Paradise at once." Then he began to laugh uproariously. When asked why he laughed, he said, "His Lord, for love of him, has sent the wind to bring him away in an hour." And actually an hour had not passed before the ship, the wood, the girl, and her master were nothing but cinders and ashes.' (373) From this account is very easy to see that the Rus considered the fire as the primary element that carried their dead chief and his possessions to Vallhöll. He is further pleased when a wind comes to fan the fire so that his chief will get to his destination even quicker.

The one type of holy fire we have the most material on was called the need-fire. There is no doubt that this practice can be traced back to Northern times. It was considered, by Northmen, to be the most holy method of starting a fire. It was produced by rubbing two sticks of wood together until the friction generated enough heat to start the fire. Flame that had been kept for some time and/or had been passed from one fire to another was thought not to be of the holy quality needed for various religious and/or magical purposes. For holy use the fire must be newly struck and was called 'need fire.' As fires that had been burning a long time or had been transferred from other fires were not sufficient for holy purposes, neither were fires struck with flint and steel of use for holy needs. The obtaining of fire from the friction between two pieces of wood being rubbed together was the most holy and most desired. (374)

Lindenbrog in the Glossary to the Capitularies describes the following method of starting a need-fire: 'If at any time a grievous murrain have broke out among cattle great or small, and they have suffered much harm thereby; the husbandmen with one consent make a nothfür or nothfeuer (need-fire). On a day appointed there must in no house be any flame left on the hearth. From every house shall be some straw and water and bushwood brought; then is a stout oaken stake driven fast into the ground, and a hole bored through the same, to the which a wooden roller well smeared with pitch and tar is let in, and so winded about, until by reason of the great heat and stress (nothzwang) it give out fire. This is straightway catched on shavings, and by straw, heath and bushwood enlarged, till it grow to a full nothfeuer, yet must it stretch a little way along betwixt two walls or hedges, and the cattle and thereto the horses be with sticks and whips driven through it three times or two. Others in other parts set up two such stakes, and stuff into the holes a windle or roller and therewith old rags smeared with grease. Others use a hairen or common light-spun rope, collect wood of nine kinds, and keep up a violent motion till such time as fire do drop there from. There may be in use yet other ways for the generating or kindling of this fire, nevertheless they all have respect unto the healing of cattle alone. After thrice or twice passing through, the cattle are driven to stall or field, and the collected pile of wood pile of wood is again pulled asunder, yet in such a wise in sundry places, that every householder shall take a brand with him, quench it in the wash or swill tub, and put the same by for a time in the crib wherein the cattle are fed. The stakes driven in for the extorting of this fire, and the wood used for a roller, are sometimes carried away for fuel, sometimes laid by in safety, when the threefold chasing of the cattle through the flame hath been accomplished." As we can see from this description grease was used to aid in the starting of the fire. Also interesting is that the main post mentioned is made of oak. In Sweden there were accounts of nine sorts of woods being used. (375) As we know the importance that Northmen put on the oak tree, it is no surprise that oak was used for the generation of the holy need-fire.

Another description comes from the Scottish highlands. "Upon any small river, lake, or island, a circular booth of stone or turf is erected, on which a couple or rafter of a birch tree is placed, and the roof covered over. In the center is set a perpendicular post, fixed by a wooden pin to the couple, the lower end being placed in an oblong groove on the floor; and another pole is placed horizontally between the upright post and the legs of the couple, into both of which the ends, being tapered, are inserted. This horizontal timber is called the augur, being provided with four short arms or spokes by which it can be turned round. As many men as can be collected are then set to work, having first divested themselves of all kinds of metal, and two at a time continue to turn the pole by means of the levers, while others keep driving wedges under the upright post so as to press it against the augur, which by the friction soon becomes ignited. From this the need-fire is instantly procured, and all other fires being immediately quenched, those are rekindled both in dwelling house and offices are accounted holy, and the cattle are successively made to smell them." (376) As with the previous description we see that the all other fires are put out before the need-fire is started. It is also interesting to note that in this description the men involved in making the need-fire are sure to take anything made of metal from themselves.