Egil's Saga
Introduction
Dasent put before us the best first, for of Iceland's Sagas the Njala undoubtedly bears the palm. But the next best has hitherto not been open to English readers—the Egilssaga to wit. Second only to the Njala in interest and merit is the Egla, and second (in my judgement) after no long interval. For though no one character enlists our sympathy in Egil's story so much as does the wise and good Njal so underservedly cut off, yet the whole story is in style and force little, if at all, inferior. Nay it has more variety of scene and adventure, more points of contact with history, than has the Njala; it is to Englishmen especially interesting, as one part of it is much concerned with England. The narrative takes us to many lands; all over Norway, to Sweden, to Finmark, and the lands beyond, Kvenland, Bjarmaland, the shores of the White Sea; in company with the Vikings we go 'the eastward way' to the Baltic, to Courland in Russia; we visit Holland, Friesland, Jutland; [iv] westwards and southwestwards we cruise about Shetland, the Orkneys, Scotland; England is reached by our hero Egil; York is the scene of his most perilous venture; he comes even as far as London.
The earlier part of the Saga, the scene of which is in Norway, with the account of Harold Fairhair's obtaining sole dominion there, is of great interest, and agrees with other accounts of the same. It is well known that Harold's tyranny (as they deemed it) drove many Norsemen of good family to seek Iceland and freedom. Among these were Egil's grandfather and father. We have a full account of their settlement in the island, whither as yet few had gone, and where land was to be had for the taking, but hard work was needed. We read of these early pioneers' industries—their farming, smithying, fishing on sea and river, seal-hunting, whaling, egg-gathering. Minute descriptions there are of the island, particularly of its western coast, its firths, nesses, rivers, fells.
No reader of this Saga can for a moment doubt the truthfulness of the picture given of life and manners at that time. A seafaring race were those Norsemen, both for trade in their ships of burden and for freebooting in their long ships; bold and skilful mariners they are seen to be. We read of a winter sledging journey in one most adventurous episode. There are battles, some of great moment, by sea and by land. One of the latter, the battle of Vinheath, in England, is told with much detail, and is (one may venture to say) as vivid an account of a battle as can be found anywhere in any language. There are single combats or wagers of battle, about the manner and terms of which we learn much that is noteworthy. There are also lawsuits in Norway, and, towards the end of the story, one in Iceland, whence we learn that the emigrants carried out with them and established their civilization with all the machinery of courts and legal procedure. There is less litigation in the Egla than in the Njala, but few readers will regret this, for, if there be anything in the story of Burnt Njal which one would be inclined to skip, it is some of the long law-pleadings.
The home life of the North is in this Saga graphically set [v] before us. We see the men at their banquets; mighty drinkings they had, with curious manners and rules. There are feasts at harvest, at Yule-tide; they exchange visits at each other's houses; hospitality is universal; weddings there are, burials. Of their halls, the arrangement thereof, their order of sitting, their armour hanging ready above the warriors, we can from scenes in this story form a complete idea. We witness their amusements, their trials of strength; a certain game at ball is described in detail.
Of their religion perhaps we do not read so much in the Egla as might be expected. They were still heathens, though Christianity was prevailing in the countries around. That the Norwegians and Icelanders were familiar with their own theology and mythology is, however, plain; their knowledge of it is constantly assumed in the poetry. Of priests the Egilssaga tells us, and of temples, and one great religious gathering isdescribed. There is not much of the marvellous or supernatural in this Saga: no ghost, as in Grettir's Saga. Some superstitions appear: a belief in magic and spells, in the force of runes graved rightly or wrongly. Several women are spoken of as possessing magic skill, especially queen Gunnhilda, who on one memorable occasion exercises all but fatally for Egil her power of shape-changing. There is one remarkable instance of a solemn spoken and written curse, with very curious accompaniments. But upon the whole little happens that is beyond fair probability, or that does not spring from natural causes. Although, as we have seen, Egil and his comrades were not Christians, the Christian faith is incidentally mentioned as prevailing in England, and towards the end of the Saga we read that Thorstein, Egil's youngest son, became eventually a Christian.
The characters in the Egilssaga are well marked and forcibly drawn. In the house of Kveldulf, old Kveldulf himself, Thorolf the elder, Skallagrim, Egil, stand forth as real men with characters well-sustained throughout. Outside the family king Harold is well drawn, the able ruler, generous in much, but suspicious, as a tyrant must needs be. His son Eric is violent, but weaker, and swayed by his wife Gunnhilda, who is to him somewhat as Jezebel [vi] was to Ahab. Arinbjorn is perhaps the noblest character in the story, the brave, generous, true friend. But the reader will estimate these and others for himself; of the hero who gives his name to the Saga a few words will not be out of place. Egil certainly must have been a remarkable man. Strong in body beyond his fellows, he was no less uncommonly gifted in mind, a poet as well as a soldier. Brave he was even to foolhardiness, yet wary withal and prudent; full of resource in danger, never giving up the game however desperate; a born leader, liked and trusted by his men. His character has its unpleasant side; he was headstrong, brutal at times when provoked, determined to have his own way, and overbearing in pursuit of it. Yet there is nothing mean or little about him; he does not engage in petty quarrels, he helps or hinders kings and great chiefs. He is outspoken and truthful, and his ire is especially stirred by meanness and falsehood in others. To women he is pleasant and courteous, as appears on several occasions. For the sake of his friend Arinbjorn and his kin he risks his life more than once.
That the bad points in Egil's character are not screened is surely one proof of the truthfulness of the Saga-writer; a mere eulogist would have blazoned forth all his hero's noble exploits, but veiled the other side, and hardly would anyone inventing a fictitious character have put such dark blots in it. But some of Egil's faults were rather those of his time than of himself. A careful reading of the whole Saga leaves us with a more favourable opinion of Egil than we form at the beginning of his life. For most readers will (I think) at the first dislike Egil; they will agree with his father Skallagrim and his elder brother Thorolf, who had not much affection for the boy. But as the story goes on, one cannot but admire his bravery, his resource, his indomitable resolution, his readiness to face danger, not only for himself, but for others whom he really prized.
The Egla contains many wonderfully good descriptive passages of the fjords, sounds, and islands of the North. An instance is chapter xlv., which relates Egil's first escape from Eric. A most dramatic scene is that where Skallagrim [vii] goes before king Harold in chapter xxv. So is chapter lxii., where Egil and Arinbjorn are before king Eric Bloodaxe in York. Very striking is the interview between Egil and his daughter Thorgerdr, after Bodvar's death, in chapter lxxi. Looking at the vigour and beauty of the style in these and other passages, we agree with the judgment in Thordarson's preface, that the Egilssaga was put into writing 'in the golden age of Icelandic literature.' And for these excellencies we must remember to give due credit and admiration to the Saga-writer. For though he was (as is generally believed) describing real men, real scenes, real characters, yet it is not everyone who, having the matter to hand, can put it together and express it so well.
About the truthfulness and historical value of the Egla there has been some discussion and difference of opinion. Is it in the main a true family history, or a romance? How long after the events recorded was it written? And by whom? These questions have been debated by northern scholars, Icelanders and others. The balance of authority and reason appears to be very much in favour of the general truthfulness of the story. The writer surely wrote down the facts as he heard or read them, not departing from the truth as he knew it or believed it. But on this question let us hear what the northern editors say.
Finnur Jónsson (Copenhagen, 1888) gives his judgement thus:
'1. The Saga in what concerns persons and events in Iceland and Norway may be considered true, with small and unimportant exceptions.
2. For what happens in other countries it cannot be reckoned quite trustworthy.
3. Its chronology is in several places faulty, which is not to be wondered at.
4. It shows extensive geographical knowledge, insight into Icelandic and Norse law and culture.
5. The composer had partly written sources of information, partly family traditions of the Moormen to go upon, with much of Egil's verses and poems.
6. He is a master in the art of telling a story and delineating character.
7. He must have lived on the Borgar-firth.'
[viii] The preface to Thordarson's edition says:
'The Saga agrees well with other Icelandic Sagas, and may be reckoned as one of the most truthful; but when it is considered that it was kept in men's memory for a very long time—the events happening before the year 1000, and the story not being put into writing till near the end of the twelfth century—naturally every syllable of it will not be true. Neither in this, however, nor in any of the best Icelandic Sagas do the writers thereof deliberately assert untruth or mean to exaggerate.'
To the authority and judgment of these scholars an Englishman can add little. Only, as regards historical events foreign to Iceland and Norway, it may be remarked that no one could reasonable expect Icelanders of the eleventh and twelgth centuries to be infallible about them. In the Egilssaga what is said about foreign countries appears generally like truth. What we read about England, e.g., and what passed there at the beginning of Athelstan's reign, agrees fairly with what we know of that time from history; some facts are undoubtedly true, none palpable untrue, though there are details which present some difficulty. But these will be better discussed in a note on that part of the Saga.
The date of the writing of Egilssaga is put between 1160 and 1200; probably near to the latter date. In chapter xc. We read of the taking up of Egil's supposed bones in the time of Skapti the priest. He is known to have been priest from 1143 onwards. Thordarson's preface suggests as a possible author Einar Skulason. He was a descendent of Egil, being grandson of the grandson of Thorstein Egilsson; he traveled much, knew well both Norway and Iceland, and was a good skald; he lived till late in the twelfth century. But that he was the author is but a guess.
Of the Egilssaga there are several editions. For this translation the following have been used: The large edition, with a Latin translation (Havniæ, mdcccix); Einar Thordarson's (Reykjavík, 1856); Finnur Jónsson's (Copenhagen, 1888). Also Petersen's Swedish translation (1862). The text of Thordarson's little book has been followed in the main; Jónsson's differs from it in many places, being [ix] generally shorter. Into the critical merits of these texts I am not competent to enter; the variations are of no importance to the story or to an English reader.
The prose of the Saga presents few difficulties to a translator. Icelandic prose, as regards order of words, is simple, and runs naturally enough into English. The sentences are mostly short and plain. In Egilssaga the style for Icelandic is pronounced by good authorities to be of the best; the translator can only hope that in its English dress it may not have lost all its attractiveness.
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