Poetic Edda - Cottle Trans.
The original inhabitants of Europe according to some writers, consisted of two distinct races of men, the Celts and Sarmatians. (1) The latter they say were the Ancestors of the Russians, Poles, Bohemians and Walachians. From the former descended the ancient inhabitants of Gaul, Germany, Scandinavia, Britain and Spain. But by others this position is denied, so far however as relates to the Celts. These maintain that Germany, Scandinavia, Gaul and Britain, were not inhabited by the descendants of one single race; but divided between the Celtic who were the ancestors of the Gauls, Britons, and Irish; and the Gothic or Teutonic, from whom the Germans, Belgians, Saxons and Scandinavians derive their origin.
Two reasons may be assigned for this difference of opinion. One from the similarity of language, the other, of custom. In remote ages prior to history, and the improvements of science, the bounds and limits of each nation were but faintly distinguished. The barbarous inhabitants of Europe, roving and unsettled, often varied their situation. At one time they seized this part of the country, at another, were driven from it by some stronger tribe of Barbarians, or spontaneously left it in search of some new settlement. Thus Cæsar informs us that the Gauls often migrated across the Rhine into Germany, and on the other hand, the Germans into Gaul. By these means the languages and customs of each became blended together, till in time, historians were led to believe that they were both originally descended from the same stock. The Roman writers had such a confused and indistinct knowledge of the descent and character of the northern nations of Europe, that they confounded both the Celts and Goths with the Sarmatians, who are well known to have been a distinct nation from them both. Thus Zosimus, an historian of the third century, includes them all under the common name of Scythians; and this at a time when, after their long and frequent intercourse with the Romans, their historians ought to have been taught to distinguish them better.
But notwithstanding the general resemblances between the Germans and Gauls, or in other words, the Teutonic and Celtic nations, they are sufficiently distinguished from each other, and differ considerably in their person, manners, laws, religion, and language.
Cæsar expressly assures us, that the Celts or inhabitants of Gaul, differed in language, custom, and laws, from the Belgæ, on the one hand, who were chiefly a Teutonic people, and from the inhabitants of Aquitain on the other, who from their vicinity to Spain, were probably of Iberian extraction; and Cæsar ought certainly to be considered as complete master of the subject. Tacitus also has observed a striking difference in the persons of the Germans, Gauls, and Spaniards.
They differed also in customs and manners. To instance only in one point, among the Germans, the wife did not give a dowry to her husband, but the husband to the wife. Among the Gauls, the husband received a portion in money with his wife, for which he made her a suitable settlement of his goods.
They differed no less in their institutions and laws. The Celtic nations do not appear to have had that equal plan of liberty, which was the peculiar characteristic of all the Gothic tribes, and which they carried with them, and planted wherever they made settlements. On the contrary, in Gaul, all the freedom and power chiefly centered among the Druids and the chief men, whom Cæsar calls Equites or Knights: but the inferior people were little better than in a state of slavery; whereas the meanest German was independent and free.
But if none of these proofs of their being two distinct people existed, the difference between their religion and language would decide the controversy at once.
Among the Celts, there was a peculiar Hierarchy or sacred College, which had the entire conduct of all their religious and even civil affairs. The members of this institution, who were Druids, served them both for Magistrates and Priests: but among the Gothic and Teutonic nations, nothing of this kind is to be found. It is true the Gothic nations had their priests, but they bore no more resemblance to the Druids, than to the Pontiffs of the Greeks and Romans, or any other Pagan people.
The Druids believed in the transmigration of the soul. The Teutonic nations, on the contrary, held that there was a fixed Elysium, and a hell, where the valiant and just were rewarded, and where the cowardly and the wicked suffered punishment. The description of these places forms a great part of the Edda.
In many other instances, the institutions of the Druids were extremely different from those of the Gothic nations. The former frequently burnt a great quantity of human victims alive, in large wicker images, as an offering to their Gods. The Gothic nations, though like all other Pagans, they occasionally defiled their altars with human blood, appear never to have had any custom like this.
The Druids venerated the oak and the mistletoe, the latter of which was regarded by them, as the most divine and salutary of plants, and gathered with very peculiar ceremonies. In the Gothic mythology, if any tree seems to have been regarded with more particular attention than others, it is the ash, as appears by its description in the Song of Grimner, and the frequent allusions that are made to it in other parts of the Edda. But as for mistletoe, it is represented rather as a contemptible and mischievous shrub.
But what particularly distinguishes the Celtic institutions from those of the Gothic nations, is that remarkable air of secrecy with which the Druids concealed their doctrines from the vulgar; forbidding that they should be ever committed to writing, and upon that account not having so much as an alphabet of their own. In this, the institutions of Odin and the Gothic Scalds or Poets were quite the reverse. No barbarous people were ever so addicted to writing, as appears from the innumerable quantity of Runic inscriptions scattered all over the North; no barbarous people ever held letters in higher reverence, ascribing the invention of them to their chief Deity, and attributing to the letters themselves supernatural virtues.
From a very few rude and simple tenets originally, those wild fablers called scalds or poets had, in the course of eight or nine centuries, invented and raised an amazing structure of fiction. We must not, therefore, suppose that all the fables of the Edda were equally known to the Gothic nations of every age or tribe. As truth is uniform and simple, so error is most irregular and various; and it is very possible, that different fables and different observances might prevail among the same people in different times and countries. This, possibly, may account for the dissimilar relations concerning the same facts, which are found in the Edda of Sæmund and that of Snorro.
From the imperfect knowledge of the divine attributes, all pagan nations are extremely apt to intermix something local with the idea of the divinity, to suppose peculiar Deities presiding over certain districts, and to worship this or that God with particular rites, which were only to be observed in one certain spot. Hence, to inattentive foreigners, there might appear a difference of religion among nations who all maintained, at the bottom, one common creed; and this will account for whatever disagreement is remarked between the ancient writers, in their descriptions of the Gods of the ancient Germans: it will also account for whatever difference may appear between the imperfect relations of the Roman historians, and the full display of the Gothic mythology, held forth in the Edda of Sæmund. It is indeed very probable, that only the first rudiments of the Gothic religion had begun to be formed, when the Germans were first known to the Romans: and when the Saxons made their irruptions into Britain, though they had the same general belief concerning Odin, Thor, Frigga, &c, yet probably the complete system had not arrived to the full maturity it afterwards attained under the inventive hands of the Scalds.
As a particular account of Odin has been omitted in the notes of this volume, it will be supplied here.
Odin is believed to have been the name of the one true God, among the first colonies who came from the East, and peopled Germany and Scandinavia, and among their posterity for several ages. But at length a mighty conqueror, the leader of a new army of adventurers from the East, over-ran the North of Europe, erected a great Empire, assumed the name of Odin, and claimed the honors which had been formerly paid to that Deity. The Icelandic chronicles represent him as the most elequent and persuasive of men; they ascribe to him the introduction of the art of poetry among the Scandinavians, and likewise the invention of the Runic characters. He had also the address to persuade his followers that he could over-run the world in the twinkling of an eye; that he had the direction of the air and tempests; that he could transform himself into all shapes, could raise the dead, could foretel things to come, deprive his enemies by enchantment, of health and vigor, and discover all the treasures hid in the earth. They add, that by his tender and melodious airs, he could make the plains and Mountains open and expand with delight; and that the ghosts, thus attracted, would leave their infernal caverns, and stand motionless about him. Nor was he less dreadful and furious in battle; changing himself into the shape of a bear, a wild bull, or a lion, and amidst ranks of enemies committing the most horrible devastation, without receiving any wound himself. When he had extended his power, and increased his fame by conquest and artifice, he determined to die in a different way from other men. He assembled his friends and with the sharp point of a lance, he made in his body nine different wounds in the form of a circle; and when expiring he declared that he was going to Scythia, where he should become an immortal God. He added, that he would prefer bliss and felicity for those of his countrymen who lived a virtuous life, who fought with bravery, and who died like heroes in the field of battle. This injunction had the desired effect: his countrymen superstitiously believed him, and constantly recommended themselves to his protection when they engaged in battle; and they entreated him to receive the souls of such as fell in war.
It remains to give some account of the reputed author of these odes.
Sæmund was born in the year 1056. His father's name was Sigfus, and his mother's Thoreya.
Sæmund, when a boy, leaving his native country, travelled into foreign parts for the sake of acquiring knowledge; and dwelt there so long, that he was nearly forgotten by his countrymen; till Jonas the son of Ogmund, bishop of Holensis, travelling to Rome, searched for him and brought him back to his native country, in the year 1078.
When he returned home, he occupied a farm which was his hereditary possession, called Odda, situated in the Southern part of the island, and took upon himself the sacerdotal office. In this he behaved so well, that he was called the ornament and support of the Icelandic church; and this not without sufficient reason, for he was by far the most learned and pious of all his contemporaries.
Notes:
1. If any person would wish to see this question more fully discussed he will find it in Percy's Northern Antiquities. [Back]
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